Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) stands as one of the most controversial yet foundational figures in the history of Western political thought. An English-born political philosopher, he is most renowned for developing the social contract theory and for being the first to systematically expound the absolutist theory of sovereignty.
Born in Malmesbury, England, his radical ideas often provoked outrage; due to his alleged atheism and blasphemy, his critics famously branded him the “Monster of Malmesbury.” Hobbes was unique in his era for applying rigorous scientific principles to the development of his political philosophy. His profound influence is widely recognized by later thinkers:
- G. H. Sabine stated that Hobbes was “probably the greatest writer of political philosophy that English-speaking people have produced.”
- Karl Marx himself is said to have remarked that “Thomas Hobbes was the father of us all.”
The Impact of the English Civil War
Hobbes’s political philosophy cannot be understood without examining the historical context in which he lived. Between 1640 and 1660, England endured massive political and constitutional upheaval, a period now known as the English Civil War.
This political chaos stemmed directly from violent controversies between the Crown and the Parliament. Hobbes was a firsthand witness to this turmoil. He firmly opposed the parliamentarians and steadfastly supported the Royalists (advocating for Crown Rule).
The horrific war culminated in the defeat of the Royalists and the shocking execution of King Charles I by the Parliamentary Army in 1649. Witnessing this brutal dismantling of order profoundly shaped Hobbes’s worldview, directly leading to his deeply pessimistic view of human nature.
Social Contract Theory
Hobbes utilized the social contract theory—a hypothetical thought experiment applied by philosophers—to understand and explain both the origin of the state and the fundamental basis of political obligation within a society.
He used this methodological approach to justify his concept of an absolute sovereign, which he called the Commonwealth (or Leviathan).
Drawing from the bloodshed of the Civil War, Hobbes claimed that human nature is inherently conflicting and self-interested. He argued that to keep men from inevitably destroying one another in this natural state, they must mutually agree to relinquish a portion of their natural rights to a higher, absolute power. This supreme authority would, in return, protect them from one another. Thus arises the absolute necessity of a social contract among the people.
The Progression of Hobbes’s Theory: The logical flow of Hobbes’s social contract theory can be understood in four distinct stages:
- Human in the State of Nature: A pre-political condition of absolute freedom but constant fear and conflict.
- Inconveniences in the State of Nature: Life becomes “nasty, brutish, and short,” making survival difficult.
- Rationale for Contract (Laws of Nature): Reason dictates that individuals must seek peace for self-preservation.
- Social Contract and Formation of Sovereign Power: The mutual agreement to surrender rights to a powerful sovereign (Leviathan) to guarantee order and security.
Humans in the State of Nature
According to Thomas Hobbes, humans are fundamentally self-interested creatures who are constantly power-hungry. He explains human actions through the basic motivations of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. Naturally, human beings desire the power necessary to achieve self-preservation and to live well.
Hobbes famously postulated that men are driven by “a perpetual and restless desire of power after power that ceaseth only in death”. While he acknowledged that humans possess rational qualities, he argued that they are imperfect; an individual’s selfish interests will always supersede their rationality, rendering them incapable of peaceful dispute resolution.
The Reality of Anarchy
Because human nature is inherently selfish and power-hungry, their unguided behavior turns the “state of nature” into a state of absolute anarchy.
- Hobbes noted that without a political society or state, human life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”.
- This state of nature is defined by “a war of all against all”.
- Under these conditions, endeavors such as farming, manufacturing, science, and the arts are a waste of time because there is absolutely no guarantee that a person will live to enjoy the fruits of their labor.
- Consequently, everyone exists in a state of continual fear and under the constant danger of a violent death.
- While humans do possess natural rights in this state, Hobbes argued that these rights are nothing more than “mere power”. They offer no genuine protection until humanity actively moves toward a civil and political society.
Ultimately, the formation of the State is an absolute necessity for human self-preservation.
Laws of Nature
To provide a logical rationale behind the formation of the State, Hobbes introduced the idea of the “laws of nature”. He theorized that the horrific, anarchic situation of the state of nature eventually teaches humanity essential wisdom. Because these pieces of wisdom are generated organically in a natural society—and in the complete absence of a governing State—they are referred to as the “Laws of Nature”.
Hobbes outlined a total of 19 distinct Laws of Nature, which he collectively considered to be “Articles of Peace”.
The three most important ‘Laws of Nature’ are:
- Seek Peace: The first law of nature dictates that humans must seek peace and actively follow it.
- Abandon Rights for Peace: The second law of nature tells individuals that they must abandon their natural rights in order to achieve that peace.
- Honor Contracts: The third law of nature commands people to honor their contracts; these covenants (contracts) are the most important vehicle through which societal rights are established and laid down.
Social Contract and the Creation of the Absolute Sovereign
Thomas Hobbes argued that life in the “state of nature” was completely intolerable. To escape this brutal reality and ensure self-preservation, rational human beings are willing to submit themselves to an absolute authority.
The Mechanism of the Contract
The social contract is executed when individuals mutually agree to surrender all their natural rights and power over themselves to a third party. Crucially, this third party is not a participant in the contract itself. Through this surrender, the third party assumes total power over the individuals, who become completely obligated to follow and approve of its decisions. This newly formed entity is the Commonwealth (Sovereign Power), which is constituted when a multitude of individuals unites under a single person or assembly.
The Leviathan
Hobbes maintained that once this sovereign power is constituted, it holds absolute authority. He famously described this creation as the “great Leviathan, or that Mortal God, to which we owe under the Immortal God, our peace and defence.” While Hobbes personally favored viewing the sovereign as a Monarch, his core focus was on the absolute nature of the power itself.
Key Features of the Sovereign and the Contract:
- Nature of Power: Sovereign power is completely undivided, unlimited, inalienable, and permanent.
- External to the Pact: Because the sovereign is the result of the social contract, it is not bound by it as a participating party.
- No Right to Rebellion: Citizens forfeit any right to revolution or rebellion against the sovereign.
- Irrevocable: The contract is perpetual and cannot be revoked or reversed once established.
- Secular Foundation: The contract is mutually constructed by the people themselves; it is a secular agreement and does not rely on the traditional “divine right of kings” for its legitimacy.
Individualism in Thomas Hobbes’s Philosophy
Despite his strong advocacy for absolute rule, Hobbes is also recognized as a foundational figure in individualistic philosophy. His entire framework rests on the premise that man is so inherently individualistic that he simply cannot live in peace with other men without the overarching presence of an absolute authority.
Combining Individualism and Absolutism Hobbes’s political theory represents a unique and powerful synthesis of individualism and absolutism:
- The Liberal Perspective (Individualism): The foundation of the state is liberal in the sense that the sovereign is created strictly through the voluntary consent of self-interested individuals seeking protection.
- The Authoritarian Reality (Absolutism): However, by simultaneously creating an absolute sovereign, Hobbes takes away the liberty of the people to ever replace, challenge, or change that government once it is formed.
Views on Liberty and Self-Preservation Rights
Thomas Hobbes defined liberty simply as the absence of external impediments. In his view, laws function as artificial chains that inevitably reduce individual liberty. However, he opined that granting “pure liberty” would only turn people against one another. Therefore, within a society, liberty consists of whatever the law explicitly permits, as well as whatever the law remains silent about.
The Absolute Right to Self-Preservation
Hobbes claimed that the laws of nature are derived from human reason and the fundamental desire for self-preservation. While he advocated for an absolute sovereign, he placed exactly one restriction on its power: the Right to Self-Preservation.
- He considered this right to be an absolute right of man because the entire basis behind forming the social contract was self-preservation itself.
- Consequently, the sovereign is never allowed to take this right away from the people.
- If a king fails to protect the lives of his subjects, the people have the right to resist him.
- A successful resistance would bring the people back to the state of nature, from which they would then select a new monarch and reinstate the same kind of political authority.
Famous Books of Thomas Hobbes in Chronology
| Year | Name of Publication | Subject Matter |
| 1642 | De Cive (On the Citizen) | Acts as an anticipation of the overarching themes later explored in Leviathan. |
| 1651 | Leviathan or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil | The book is divided into four distinct parts. It formally contains his theories on the Laws of Nature, Social Contract Theory, and the Absolute Sovereign. |
| 1655 | De Corpore (On the Body) | Also known as the ‘Elements of law, natural and politic.’ |
| 1658 | De Homine (On Man) | Serves as the final installment of the Hobbesian great trilogy (which includes De Cive, De Corpore, and De Homine). |
| 1681 | Behemoth: the history of the causes of the civil wars of England | Also commonly known as ‘The Long Parliament.’ |