John Locke is a renowned English philosopher widely recognized as the “Father of Liberalism”. He stands as one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment, serving as an inspirer for both the European Enlightenment and the Constitution of the United States. Much of his political philosophy was embraced in England following the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and similarly adopted in the United States after its independence in 1776.
Idea of Human Nature and the State of Nature
Locke’s conception of the state of nature and human behavior significantly shaped his political theories:
- The state of nature is fundamentally characterized by human freedom and equality.
- It is marked by the absence of formal government, but crucially, not by the absence of mutual obligation.
- Locke believed human nature is inherently guided by tolerance and reason.
- The notion of self-preservation and the law of nature teaches that, because everyone is equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, liberty, or possessions.
- Because of these guiding rational principles, Locke’s state of nature is relatively peaceful.
- He posited that the rights to life, liberty, and property are natural rights that precede the establishment of any civil society.
- As the thinker Dunning aptly mentioned, John Locke’s state of nature is “pre-political, but it is not pre-moral”.
The Need for a Contract and State
Although individuals enjoyed complete liberty in the state of nature, it was not a perfect system. If an individual surpassed the laws of reason and violated the natural rights of others, the state of nature suffered from three major inconveniences:
- The absence of a common law.
- The absence of an impartial and known judge.
- The absence of an executive body to properly enforce the law and protect the liberties of the people.
According to Locke, these specific precarious situations within the state of nature ultimately convinced humans to form a governed state for the sake of protecting their natural rights of life, liberty, and property.
The Social and Political Contracts
Locke’s Social Contract Theory finds its primary expression in his famous 1690 book, Two Treatises on Civil Government. To transition from the state of nature, people essentially made two distinct contracts: the Social Contract and the Political Contract.
1. The Social Contract
- This contract was made directly between the people themselves.
- Through it, individuals only made a partial surrender of their rights; specifically, they gave up the right of interpreting and enforcing the law of nature.
- This specific agreement successfully brought people out of a natural society and created a civil society.
2. The Political (Governmental) Contract
- Following the formation of civil society, the Political Contract was made between the people and the ruler.
- This agreement was explicitly made to enforce the terms and protections of the first contract.
- This contract requires generational consent to remain valid.
- Most importantly, the government can be lawfully removed by the people if they are not happy with its governance.
Idea of Fiduciary Trust
According to John Locke, trust is a crucial element of ‘Social Contracts’. He made the famous assertion that “all governance is fiduciary, or founded on trust”.
- Purpose of Government: The fundamental purpose of both government and law is to uphold and protect natural rights.
- Sovereignty and Trusteeship: Locke argued that sovereignty inherently lies with the people, and governments merely act as trustees for them.
- Right to Revolt: Because of this fiduciary relationship, governments can be legitimately overthrown if they fail to properly discharge their functions to the people. A breach of the people’s fundamental natural rights justifies a revolt against the government.
- Secular Foundation: Locke’s ‘Social Contract’ was based on a new secular approach to natural law.
- Limited Power: Ultimately, John Locke pleaded for a constitutionally limited government.
Theory of Property
Instead of focusing solely on the natural value of property, Locke prioritized the labor of the people as the primary means of adding value to it. He implicitly mentioned this concept in his ‘Second Treatise’.
His theory is deeply rooted in the laws of nature, which permit individuals to appropriate and exercise control over things in the world, such as land and other material resources. In essence, John Locke strongly favored private property rights.
The main features of Locke’s theory of property include:
- Labor acts as the guiding principle of the first appropriation.
- Properties can exist as both private and common.
- The self-ownership of property is actively created by the related labor.
- The government is tasked with protecting individual ownership and the rights to property.
- There is a divinely ordinated nature to both property and the laborer.
Three Types of Power
In his major work, the Two Treatises of Government, John Locke distinguished between three primary types of governmental power: legislative, executive, and federative.
- Legislative Power: This power creates the rules necessary to give effect to and protect inalienable rights. The law designed for the protection of people’s natural rights also ensures judicial power and protection.
- Executive Power: This is the power by which the law is enforced. It involves making the judgments necessary to apply established rules to specific cases and administering force as directed by those rules.
- Federative Power: This represents the natural power in charge of a state’s international relations. The federative power controls the external relations of the state and is always concerned with the making of war and peace.
List of Books with Important Concepts
- Essays on the Law of Nature (1676).
- A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689): This work argued against the uniformist position. Furthermore, it actively suggested the adoption of religious toleration.
- Two Treatises of Government (1689): The first treatise within this work served as a direct critique of patriarchalism, specifically targeting Sir Robert Filmer’s book, Patriarcha. The second treatise explained the true original, extent, and end of civil government. This framework was firmly based on natural rights and contract theory.
- An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689): This text deals comprehensively with the foundation of human knowledge and understanding. In this work, the author mentioned the pivotal concept of ‘tabula rasa’. This represents the theory that at birth, the human mind is a ‘blank slate’ without any built-in mental content. Therefore, it concludes that all knowledge comes directly from one’s sensory experience.
- Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693).
- The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695).
- Of the Conduct of the Understanding (1706): In this publication, the text describes how a person should go about thinking clearly and rationally.
- A System of Theology (1962).