Confucius

Confucius, also known as Kung Fu-Tzu or “Master Kung,” was born in 551 BCE and is widely considered China’s first philosopher. His philosophy emerged during the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC – 256 BC), a period experiencing the decay of political and social order. To restore this order, Confucius proposed a system of moral leadership, creating a tradition of ethical and political thought that deeply connects politics with ethics.

His moral philosophy served as the dominant pillar of China’s political system for nearly 2000 years. While Confucianism saw a demise in mainland China during the 20th century following the advent of Communism, its values are still preserved by political thinkers in Taiwan and Hong Kong.

Components of Confucian Political Theory

Confucian Political Theory is built upon five interconnected components: the Idea of Commonwealth, Benevolent Government, Rule of Virtue, Meritocracy, and Transfer of Power.

1. The Idea of the Commonwealth

• According to Confucius, the world is a shared resource destined for everyone to live together peacefully, rather than the property of any single king or monarch.
• Kings are chosen by divine will and are trusted by the people to govern this commonwealth.
• Confucius outlined three stages of human development:
  1. Turbulent Stage: A period marked by instability and disorder in society.
  2. Prosperous Stage: A period characterized by economic security and political stability.
  3. Peaceful Stage: The ultimate stage where a true Commonwealth is established.
• In the Peaceful Stage (Commonwealth), people treat everyone—including outsiders—as their own, and leaders are selected based on virtue and competence instead of hereditary monarchy.

2. Benevolent Government

• Benevolence is defined as overcoming oneself to observe rites, combined with an attitude to “love your fellow men”.
• The system operates on the Golden Rule: an individual “would not do to others what he himself does not wish others to do to him”.
• A benevolent government is expected to minimize taxation and punishment, ensure access to food, education, and employment, and protect its citizens from invasion and unjust wars.
• The legitimacy of the government relies on a “service conception of authority,” meaning it is firmly committed to serving the people.

3. Rule of Virtue

• In Confucian political philosophy, constitutionalism, the Rule of Law, and citizen participation are not considered important; instead, the goodness of the ruler is everything.
• The king’s virtue ultimately determines the destiny of the State.
• Confucius identified five general virtues necessary for a harmonious society:
  • Benevolence/Humanity (Ren): Compassion.
  • Propriety (Li): Social and Moral Behavior.
  • Righteousness/Justice (Yi): Justice, and being morally right.
  • Wisdom/Knowledge (Zhi): Familiarity with truth and facts.
  • Trustworthiness/Integrity (Xin): Adhering to moral character.
• Governance should be led by a Junzi (Gentleman or Noble Leader), whose political power derives from his morality and greatness rather than legal authority.

4. Meritocracy in Government

• Government officials must be selected based on merit, specifically favoring those who are incorruptible and possess the virtue of filial piety.
• Individuals first serve as junior officials and are assigned higher positions only after performance evaluations.
• Imperial China utilized an examination system where a good command of the “Four Books” (Doctrine of the Mean, the Great Learning, Mencius, and the Analects) was the most important qualification to become an official.

5. Transfer of Political Power

• Confucius discussed two primary methods for the transfer of power:
  1. Abdication System: The ideal form of transition, where a king leaves his position and transfers power to someone with better virtues.
  2. Hereditary Ascension: A practical form where a king transfers power to his eldest son to maintain political stability. However, this carries disadvantages, including the risk of mediocre rule or injustice if the king is tyrannical.

The Importance of Education

• Education is viewed as a foundational pillar for an ideal society and is central to achieving proper conduct in both society and government.
• Confucius stated, “Education breeds confidence. Confidence breeds hope. Hope breeds peace.”
• He believed education should be available to everyone, regardless of their social status, as a person educated in moral principles will be incorruptible.
• Knowledge must be reflected in one’s way of life; the Analects warn, “He who learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger.”
• While the ‘Six Arts’ (ritual, music, archery, chariot-riding, calligraphy, and computation) must be taught, morality is considered the most important subject.

The Five Relationships

• Relationships and social order are central to the teachings of Confucius.
• These relationships are based on the idea that there are inferior and superior roles, and each person must fulfill their role without question to help society free itself from chaos.
• Confucius stated that a country is well-governed when all parties perform their parts properly in these relationships.
• The father and son relationship is considered the most important because the order of society and government is rooted in it.
• The five great relationships of Confucianism and their corresponding virtues are:
  • Father – Son: Filial piety.
  • Ruler – Subject: Loyalty.
  • Elder Brother – Younger Brother: Brotherliness.
  • Husband – Wife: Love and Obedience.
  • Friend – Friend: Faithfulness (One of Equality).

Literary Sources of Confucius’s Thought

The Five Classics (Wu Jing)

The ideas in these books create the foundation of Confucianism. Their names are:

• The I Ching (Book of Changes).
• The Shu Jing (Book of History).
• The Shi Ching (Book of Odes [poetry]).
• The Li Ching (Book of Rites).
• The Ch’un-Ching (Spring and Autumn Annals).

The Four Books (Ssu-chu)

This is a collection of teachings from Confucius and his disciples. They include:

• Analects — Confucius’s own prescriptions for an ideal society.
• The Doctrine of the Mean.
• The Great Learning.
• Mencius (The Book of Meng-Tzu).