Citizenship represents the legal and social status of an individual as a fully recognized, responsible member of a sovereign state or political community.
At its core, citizenship forms a two-way relationship between the individual and the state:
- The State’s Role: Grants civil, political, and social rights to the individual.
- The Citizen’s Role: Fulfills necessary duties and obligations toward the state in return.
Important Definitions
Various political thinkers and sociologists have defined citizenship throughout history. Here are some of the most notable perspectives:
| Thinker | Definition of Citizenship |
|---|---|
| Aristotle | “Who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state is said by us to be a citizen of that state.” |
| Gettel | “The status of an individual due to which he enjoys civil and political rights in the state and is ready to fulfil his obligations.” |
| Harold J. Laski | “The contribution of one’s instructed judgment to the public good.” |
| William Boyd | “Citizenship consists in the right ordering of loyalties.” |
| T. H. Marshall | “Full and equal membership in a political community.” |
Who is a Citizen? (Methods of Acquisition)
Traditionally, there are two primary legal principles by which an individual is granted citizenship at birth:
- Citizenship by Descent (Jus Sanguinis): Translating to “right of blood,” this principle states that an individual acquires citizenship if one or both of their parents are citizens of that given state, regardless of where the individual is born.
- Citizenship by Birthplace (Jus Soli): Translating to “right of the soil,” this principle dictates that anyone born within the territorial borders of a country automatically acquires citizenship of that state. This legal concept originated in England.
Theories of Citizenship
1. The Liberal Theory of Citizenship
The Liberal Theory is one of the foundational frameworks for understanding modern citizenship, largely championed by British sociologist T. H. Marshall.
Key Principles of Marshall’s Theory:
- In his influential 1950 essay, Citizenship and Social Class, Marshall observed that citizenship prescribes a balance of equal rights and duties, liberties and constraints, as well as power and responsibilities among individuals.
- The theory posits that civil rights form the absolute foundation of citizenship.
T.H. Marshall’s Three Components of Citizenship: Marshall famously structured citizenship into three distinct evolutionary components:
- Civic (or Civil) Citizenship: The rights necessary for individual freedom (e.g., freedom of speech, right to justice, property rights).
- Political Citizenship: The right to participate in the exercise of political power (e.g., voting rights, running for office).
- Social Citizenship: The right to a baseline standard of economic welfare and security, living the life of a civilized being according to the standards prevailing in the society.
Contributions by John Rawls: The prominent political philosopher John Rawls also contributed heavily to the liberal understanding of citizenship. He expanded on social citizenship by arguing for the necessary redistribution of goods and services to specifically benefit the least advantaged sections of society, thereby ensuring a fair and equitable political community.
2. Libertarian Theory of Citizenship
The libertarian perspective views citizenship through the lens of free markets and individual choice.
- Chief Exponent: Robert Nozick is considered the primary exponent of this theory.
- Core Philosophy: Libertarians argue that citizenship is the product of free choice and contracts made among individuals. It uses a market society as its foundation and as the ideal model for civic life.
- Historical Context: In a practical sense, libertarian citizenship can be traced back to the government of Margaret Thatcher in 1979 Britain, which prioritized market rights over social rights.
- Key Works: In his seminal 1974 book, Anarchy, State and Utopia, Robert Nozick observed that individuals utilize private activity, market exchange, and voluntary associations to realize their personal preferences, beliefs, and values.
- Definition of a Citizen: Under this theory, a citizen is fundamentally viewed as a rational consumer of public goods.
3. Marxist Theory of Citizenship
The Marxist theory analyzes citizenship through the dynamics of class struggle and the evolution of capitalism.
- Chief Exponent: Anthony Giddens is the primary exponent of this specific theoretical framework.
- Core Argument: According to this theory, the rights connected to citizenship are actually a by-product of class conflict. In his works A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism (1981) and Profiles and Critiques of Social Theory (1982), Giddens formulated his viewpoint by contradicting the established views of T. H. Marshall.
- The Evolution of Capitalism: In The Nation State and Violence (1985), Giddens argued that contemporary capitalism is distinctly different from nineteenth-century capitalism because it has been significantly shaped by labor movements.
- Welfare Capitalism: Giddens brought the concept of welfare capitalism into focus, highlighting how it takes care of the civil rights of workers.
- Conclusion: Ultimately, Anthony Giddens revised the traditional Marxist perspective, concluding that it is possible for citizenship rights to be maintained within a liberal framework.
4. Communitarian View of Citizenship
The communitarian perspective emphasizes the group and the individual’s active role within their community.
- Key Exponents: Prominent thinkers include Hannah Arendt (The Human Condition, 1958), Michael Walzer (Spheres of Justice, 1983), and Benjamin Barber (Strong Democracy, 1984).
- Core Philosophy: The central theme is that a citizen must actively identify with the community they are a member of and take an active part in its political life. Only through this participation can an individual contribute substantially to realizing common interests.
- Individual vs. Society: The main feature of this view is active “citizen participation” in the welfare of society, resting on the belief that the individual does not exist prior to society.
- Focus on Rights: Unlike liberal theories that prioritize the individual, the communitarian view places a much heavier emphasis on group rights.
5. Feminist View of Citizenship
Feminist critics highlight the disconnect between legal citizenship and the lived realities of women.
- Core Critique: Feminist scholars argue that even when women achieve full citizenship in law, they continue to suffer from subjugation in their social lives.
- Systemic Inequality: Feminists argue that women remain “second-class citizens” globally due to the pervasive dominance of men across civil, political, cultural, and social spheres of life.
- Historical Context: This perspective aligns with J. S. Mill’s statement that “an egalitarian family is a much more fertile ground for equal citizens than one organized like a school for despotism”.
- Proposed Solutions: Scholars like Iris Marion Young argue that the state must actively differentiate between men and women in order to truly understand the distinct disadvantages women face, and should actively try to compensate for those disadvantages.
- Conclusion: Feminists argue that until the conditions for women’s equal participation in public life are completely fulfilled, the concept of citizenship cannot be brought to its logical conclusion.
Essential Literature on Citizenship
| Theoretical Perspective | Author | Book Title (Year) | Core Theme & Contribution |
| Foundational & Liberal | T.H. Marshall | Citizenship and Social Class (1950) | Establishes the evolutionary triad of civil, political, and social rights. |
| Foundational & Liberal | John Rawls | A Theory of Justice (1971) | Shapes the liberal understanding of citizens as free and equal persons in a well-ordered society. |
| Foundational & Liberal | Will Kymlicka | Multicultural Citizenship (1995) | Explores how group-differentiated minority rights intersect with universal citizenship. |
| Libertarian | Robert Nozick | Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974) | Frames citizenship around market relations, private property, and a minimal state. |
| Marxist Frameworks | Anthony Giddens | The Nation-State and Violence (1985) | Argues contemporary citizenship rights are by-products of historical class conflict. |
| Communitarian | Hannah Arendt | The Human Condition (1958) | Emphasizes the absolute necessity of active political participation within the public realm. |
| Communitarian | Michael Walzer | Spheres of Justice (1983) | Highlights the community’s sovereign role in distributing membership and shaping civic identity. |
| Communitarian | Benjamin Barber | Strong Democracy (1984) | Advocates for robust, direct citizen participation to realize the common interest over thin representation. |
| Feminist & Rights | Iris Marion Young | Justice and the Politics of Difference (1990) | Argues for differentiated citizenship to accommodate and compensate marginalized groups. |
| Contemporary / Global | April Carter | The Political Theory of Global Citizenship (2013) | Analyzes cosmopolitanism and the evolution of world citizenship in transnational movements. |
| Contemporary / Rights | Karen Zivi | Making Rights Claims (2012) | Explores the performative nature of rights claiming in shaping democratic boundaries. |