Politics is widely regarded as the study of the “shaping and sharing of power.” As a foundational concept in political science, power holds a status comparable to that of money in economics. Broadly, power is defined as the capacity to achieve a desired outcome.
The manifestation of power varies depending on the context:
- At the Individual Level: It is the ability of an individual to impose their will upon others.
- At the Global Level: It is a nation’s capacity to conduct its domestic and international affairs free from external interference.
Power generally consists of three primary ingredients:
- Force
- Influence
- Authority
Power vs. Authority
While closely related, power and authority operate differently within political structures.
| Feature | Power | Authority |
| Definition | The core ability to influence. | A formalized, constitutional form of power. |
| Nature | Often associated with persuasion, pressure, threat, coercion, or violence. | Characterized as rightful, legitimate power. |
| Overtones | Lacks a constitutional or formalized overtone. | Possesses both legal and moral overtones. |
The Relationship Between Power and Authority
The core dynamic between these two concepts can be summarized by the following principle:
Authority = Power + Legitimacy
If power is the ability to influence the behavior of others, authority is the recognized right to do so. These two concepts are intrinsically interlinked. Authority is rarely exercised effectively in the absence of power, and the assertion of power usually implies at least some degree of underlying authority. The sociologist Max Weber famously categorized authority as a specific form of power—specifically, legitimate power.
Theoretical Perspectives on Power
Political science categorizes the understanding of power into conventional and non-conventional frameworks.
The Conventional View
In the traditional sense, power is primarily viewed as a form of domination and is considered inherently coercive.
- Robert Dahl’s Relational Concept: Dahl defines power as the ability to compel others to get things done, even against their wishes.
- Associated Theories: This perspective encompasses Liberal Theory, Marxist Theory, Elitist Theory, and Pluralist Theory.
The Non-Conventional View
Alternative interpretations shift the focus from strict domination to empowerment and collective action.
- Key Thinkers: This view includes Antonio Gramsci’s concept of Hegemony and Hannah Arendt’s concept of Acting in Concert.
- Steven Lukes’ Three-Dimensional View: Lukes expanded the understanding of power into three distinct dimensions:
- Formal Power: Direct, observable decision-making (aligning with Max Weber’s traditional views).
- Agenda Setting: The power to decide what gets discussed or excluded (often associated with Marxist views).
- Thought Control: The subtle process of shaping desires and beliefs so that potential conflicts never arise (aligning with Gramscian views).
Elite Theory vs. Pluralistic Theory of Power
These two political science theories offer contrasting views on how power is distributed, exercised, and maintained within a society.
| Feature | Pluralist Theory | Elitist Theory |
| Distribution of Power | Power is not concentrated in a single group; it is widely distributed among various organizations and associations. | Power is heavily concentrated and lies exclusively within a small, dominant section of society known as the “elite.” |
| Nature of Power | Stresses the immaterial aspects of power (e.g., influence, coalition-building). | Stresses the material representation of power (e.g., wealth, property, institutional control). |
| Individual Participation | If an individual cannot actively keep up with politics, their interests are still protected by representative interest groups. | Only successful individuals who have actively proven their power may enter the political system. |
| Defining Characteristic | Compromise and bargaining define the core of Pluralist Theory. | The superiority of the property-owning upper class defines Elitist Theory. |
| Government Structure | The government operates on a system of checks and balances that evens out power dynamics. | The government is comprised of a “single mind type” (a unified elite consensus) that dictates and creates policies. |
| System Challenges & Strategies | The system can easily become gridlocked or “frozen” in decision-making due to competing interest groups. | The elite sometimes need to artificially elevate non-elites into power circles simply to appease the masses. |
| Mobility & The Masses | People in decision-making positions are fluid, constantly moving in and out of power. | Power is decisively determined at the top, relying on the masses remaining largely uninformed or passive. |
| Key Exponents & Concepts | Presents the Polyarchy view championed by Robert Dahl. | Important exponents include Vilfredo Pareto, Robert Michels, Gaetano Mosca, and C. Wright Mills. |
The Postmodern Theory of Power
The most prominent explanation of power from a postmodern (and post-structural) perspective is advanced by Michel Foucault. In his foundational book, Discipline and Punish, Foucault outlines a highly unconventional social theory of power.
Key characteristics of Foucault’s theory include:
- The Ubiquity of Power: Foucault famously stated that “Knowledge is Power,” arguing that “Power is everywhere”. Rather than being held exclusively at the top of a hierarchy, he proposed that “Power flows throughout the society in the form of a network of capillaries”.
- Disciplinary Norms over Coercion: Power does not primarily operate through a rigid command-and-obedience relationship. Instead, it functions through internalized disciplinary norms.
- Institutional Management: Power is exercised through various institutions designed to organize and manage people within a complex division of labor. These institutions include schools, offices, police departments, prisons, hospitals, clinics, and welfare organizations.
- A Micro-Level Perspective: Moving away from a traditional macro-view, Foucault’s analysis focuses on a micro-view of power dynamics.
- The Duality of Power: A central tenet of this micro-view is that “each of us is powerful and powerless at the same time”. Individuals are simultaneously under the power of someone else while also exercising power over others.
Important Definitions of Power
Prominent thinkers across history, philosophy, and political science have offered distinct definitions and observations regarding power:
- H. Lasswell and A. Kaplan: Described political science as “the study of the shaping and sharing of power”.
- Thomas Hobbes: Observed human nature by stating, “There is a general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire for power after power that ceased only in death”.
- Bertrand Russell: Defined power simply as “the ability of a person to fulfil his desires or to achieve his objectives”.
- H.V. Wiseman: Characterized it as “the ability to get one’s wishes carried out despite opposition”.
- Hannah Arendt: Highlighted the boundary between power and coercion, stating, “Only power but never violence can create legitimate authority”.
- Robert M. MacIver: Saw it as “the capacity to command services or compliance of others”.
- Friedrich Nietzsche: Took an epistemological view, asserting, “Power is a capacity to define reality”.
- Lord Acton: Offered the famous warning, “Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely”.
- Vilfredo Pareto: Viewed power structurally across time, noting, “History of mankind is nothing but a graveyard of the aristocracy”.
Important Authors and Books
The following table outlines key theorists and their significant contributions to the study of power, governance, and society.
| Author | Notable Publication(s) |
| Bertrand Russell | Power: A New Social Analysis |
| Robert MacIver | The Web of Government |
| Vilfredo Pareto | The Mind and Society |
| Gaetano Mosca | The Ruling Class |
| Robert Michels | Political Parties |
| C. Wright Mills | The Power Elite |
| Robert Dahl | Who Governs? Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy |
| Steven Lukes | Power: A Radical View |
| Hannah Arendt | On Violence |
| Michel Foucault | The Birth of the Clinic (1963) Madness and Civilization (1969) Discipline and Punish (1975) The History of Sexuality (1976) |