The foreign policy of a state is shaped by many forces. Some arise inside the country, such as its geography, history, political system, economy, leaders and public opinion. Others arise outside it, such as the balance of power among states, the policies of great powers, the nature of the neighbourhood and the rules of international institutions. Together these forces are called the determinants of foreign policy.
India’s foreign policy is a good case for study. India has a long civilisational tradition, a colonial past, a large and diverse society, a difficult neighbourhood and a growing economy. Its leaders have tried to protect its security, to promote development, and to gain a role in the world that matches its size. The balance of these determinants has changed over time, from the idealism and non-alignment of the Nehru years to the pragmatic and multi-directional policy of today.
This note is written for students of UG, PG, OPSC, UPSC and UGC NET. It follows the usual order of a textbook: meaning, characteristics, domestic determinants, international determinants, the phases and doctrines of policy, cases, and then exam guidance, a critical analysis and a reading list.
1. Meaning and definitions
This topic uses four key terms: foreign policy, national interest, determinants, and India’s foreign policy. The table gives the main writers at a glance. The paragraphs after it explain each idea in simple words. The wording is a paraphrase, so students should give the idea and not claim it as a word-for-word quotation.
| Writer | Work and year | Core idea | Position |
|---|---|---|---|
| Norman Padelford and George Lincoln | International Politics, 1954 | Foreign policy is the key element in the process by which a state translates its broad goals into concrete action to achieve its objectives and protect its interests | Classical |
| George Modelski | A Theory of Foreign Policy, 1962 | Foreign policy is the system of activities by which states try to change the behaviour of other states and adjust their own to the international environment | Systems approach |
| Joseph Frankel | The Making of Foreign Policy, 1963 | Foreign policy consists of decisions and actions that involve relations between one state and others | Decision-making |
| James Rosenau | The Scientific Study of Foreign Policy, 1971 | Foreign policy has several sources: individual, role, governmental, societal and systemic | Comparative foreign policy |
| Hans Morgenthau | Politics Among Nations, 1948 | The key concept is interest defined in terms of power | Realism |
| Harold and Margaret Sprout | The Ecological Perspective on Human Affairs, 1965 | Policy depends on how decision-makers see their environment, as well as on the environment itself | Psychological-milieu |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | Radio broadcast, 7 September 1946 | India will follow a policy of friendship with all, and keep away from power blocs | India’s statesman |
| K. P. Misra | Studies in Indian Foreign Policy, 1969 | Indian foreign policy rests on India’s history, geography and economic needs, as well as on its ideals | Indian scholar |
| Sisir Gupta, A. Appadorai | Indian Foreign Policy (various works) | Policy is shaped by national interest, geography and the need for development | Indian scholars |
| J. N. Dixit | Indian Foreign Policy and Its Neighbours, 2001; Across Borders, 1998 | Neighbourhood relations are central to India’s policy | Diplomat-scholar |
| Sumit Ganguly and C. Raja Mohan | Various works | Indian policy has moved from idealism to realism and strategic autonomy | Contemporary |
Foreign policy
Foreign policy is the set of goals, decisions and actions by which a state deals with other states and international actors, in order to protect and advance its interests. It has objectives (what the state wants), principles (how it wants to act), and instruments (the tools it uses, such as diplomacy, trade, aid, force and cultural ties). It is not made in a vacuum. It is the point at which the domestic and the international meet.
National interest
National interest is the core concept. Realists such as Morgenthau saw it as interest defined in terms of power. Others include security, economic welfare, a stable world order and national values. Scholars separate vital interests (those that cannot be given up, such as territorial integrity), and secondary interests (those open to bargaining). Indian leaders have often spoken of national interest together with ethical aims, as Nehru did when he said that the principal objective of foreign policy is the preservation of India’s freedom and security.
Determinants
Determinants are the factors that shape the choices of a state in its external relations. They are usually divided into two groups. Domestic or internal determinants include geography, history, culture, ideology, the political system, leaders, public opinion, the economy and military strength. International or external determinants include the structure of the international system, the policies of other states, regional conditions and international institutions. Rosenau’s model puts the sources in five groups, individual, role, governmental, societal and systemic, which shows that they work together.
India’s foreign policy
India’s foreign policy is the policy that India has followed since independence in 1947. Its main aims are the protection of national security and territorial integrity, the pursuit of economic development, the promotion of a peaceful and just world order, and the gaining of a respected place for India among nations. Its important ideas include non-alignment, Panchsheel, anti-colonialism and anti-racism, support for the United Nations, peaceful settlement of disputes, and, in recent decades, strategic autonomy and multi-alignment.
Scholar-wise definitions
The ideas below are in simple words, scholar by scholar, and are paraphrases.
On foreign policy
- Padelford and Lincoln: foreign policy is the key element in the process by which a state translates its broad goals into concrete action to achieve its objectives and protect its interests.
- George Modelski: foreign policy is the system of activities evolved by communities for changing the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international environment.
- Joseph Frankel: foreign policy is made of decisions and actions which involve, to some appreciable extent, relations between one state and others.
- Charles Hermann: foreign policy consists of discrete purposeful actions that result from the political level decision of an individual or group of individuals.
- Christopher Hill: foreign policy is the sum of official external relations conducted by an independent actor, usually a state, in international relations.
On national interest and determinants
- Hans Morgenthau: the concept of interest defined as power is the main signpost that helps realism find its way through international politics.
- Joseph Frankel: national interest is a guide to action that links the aspirations of a state with its means.
- James Rosenau: the sources of foreign policy can be grouped as individual, role, governmental, societal and systemic variables.
- Kenneth Waltz: the structure of the international system shapes the behaviour of states more than their internal features.
- Robert Putnam: international negotiation is a two-level game, played at once with other states and with domestic groups.
On India’s foreign policy
- Jawaharlal Nehru: India’s foreign policy rests on the preservation of freedom and security, friendship with all, and keeping out of military blocs, with an effort to build a peaceful world.
- K. P. Misra: Indian foreign policy rests on geography, history, economic needs and ideals, and has an element of both continuity and change.
- J. N. Dixit: India’s relations with the countries around it are the base of its wider policy, and need patience and balanced use of power.
- C. Raja Mohan: India has moved from a policy of moral idealism to one of power and interest, which he describes as a move from non-alignment to a more realist and active policy.
Note to the student. In an answer, begin with a short definition of foreign policy (Padelford and Lincoln or Modelski), explain national interest, then divide the determinants into domestic and international, and give Indian examples for each. Mention Rosenau or Putnam for the idea that the two sets work together.
What the definitions share
All the writers agree that foreign policy is purposeful action by a state in its external relations, and that it is shaped by both internal and external forces. They differ on which forces matter most: realists stress the structure of power and national interest, while others stress domestic politics, ideas and leadership.
2. Characteristics of India’s foreign policy and its determinants
The points below describe the common features of India’s foreign policy and the way its determinants work. Each is followed by an example and a note on exam use.
Shaped by both domestic and international forces
No single factor explains India’s choices. Domestic needs, such as development and unity, work together with external pressures, such as the Cold War or the rise of China. The decision to adopt non-alignment in the 1950s, for example, came from India’s wish for freedom of action at home and abroad and from the bipolar world around it. In an exam, this point justifies a two-part answer.
Continuity with change
Some elements have lasted since 1947: the stress on independence of judgement, peaceful settlement of disputes, support for the United Nations and the interest in development. Others have changed, as in the shift from state-led and idealist policy to economic diplomacy and strategic partnerships after 1991. Students should show both sides.
Strong role of geography
India is a large peninsula with the Himalayas in the north and the Indian Ocean in the south, and shares land borders with several states, including China and Pakistan. This gives it both a security challenge and a place at the centre of South Asia and the Indian Ocean. The long coastline and island territories link its policy to maritime security.
Influence of history and civilisation
India has a long tradition of statecraft, from Kautilya’s Arthashastra to Ashoka’s policy of dhamma, and a record of trade and cultural links with Southeast Asia, West Asia and Africa. The colonial experience taught the value of sovereignty and gave an anti-imperialist view. Nehru linked the two when he wrote in The Discovery of India (1946) about India’s place in the world.
Idealism and moral language
In the Nehru years, policy was expressed in moral terms, with Panchsheel, peaceful coexistence, anti-colonialism and disarmament. Gandhi’s influence on non-violence and Nehru’s internationalism were central. Critics, such as Sardar Patel in his warning on China in 1950, said that this neglected hard security. The tension between idealism and realism is an important theme.
Focus on independence of action
India has tried to keep its freedom of decision, which shows in non-alignment, the refusal to join military alliances and, later, the policy of strategic autonomy. The Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1971, and the nuclear tests of 1974 and 1998, are examples of decisions taken for national need and not to please others.
Importance of the leader and the prime minister’s office
Foreign policy has been led by the prime minister, with Nehru, who also held the External Affairs portfolio, as the first example. Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, P. V. Narasimha Rao, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Manmohan Singh and Narendra Modi have each left a personal mark. This reflects the Rosenau point that the individual and role variables matter.
Institutional framework
The Constitution, the Parliament, the Ministry of External Affairs, the Indian Foreign Service, the National Security Council and the defence and intelligence agencies shape the policy process. Article 253 gives Parliament power to make laws to implement treaties, and Article 51 states aims for the foreign policy of the state. Treaty-making is mostly an executive matter in India.
Link between security and development
India is a developing country, and economic growth is a main national aim. In the early years, the need for aid, food and technology shaped relations with the United States, Soviet Union and others. After 1991, trade, investment, energy and technology became central. Therefore, foreign policy is seen as a tool of development.
Importance of the neighbourhood
Stability in the neighbourhood is a first concern. India has had wars with Pakistan (1947 to 1948, 1965, 1971, 1999), a war with China (1962), and has faced issues of border, water, refugees and insurgency with its neighbours. Policy ideas such as the Gujral Doctrine and Neighbourhood First show this priority.
Pragmatism and flexibility
Since the 1990s, India has worked with many partners at once: the United States, Russia, the European Union, Japan, Israel, Gulf states and others, often by issue. This is called multi-alignment. It reflects the view that a rising state should keep its options open.
Strong domestic consensus on main aims, with debate on methods
Most parties agree on territorial integrity, independence of policy and development, and differ on the approach to Pakistan, the United States or China. Coalition governments from 1989 to 2014 brought regional parties into the debate, but the main lines of policy remained stable. This point is useful in answering questions on continuity.
Rising power with limits
India is the world’s most populous country, one of its largest economies, a nuclear power and a space power, and holds a place in groupings such as the G20, BRICS, the Quad and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. At the same time, it faces poverty, limited resources and a difficult neighbourhood. The challenge is to turn growing weight into influence.
3. Determinants at a glance
Domestic factors (left) and international factors (right) act together on the making of policy. Their joint effect is a search for strategic autonomy and the national interest.
4. Domestic determinants: geography and history
Domestic determinants come from inside the state. Geography and history are the most lasting of them, because they change slowly and set the frame for all other choices.
Geography
A state cannot choose its location, and this makes geography a first determinant. K. M. Panikkar, in India and the Indian Ocean (1945), argued that India’s security and destiny were tied to the sea, and Nehru said that India could not be indifferent to what happened across its borders. Several features of India’s geography have shaped policy.
- Size and central position. India covers about 3.28 million square kilometres, and sits at the centre of South Asia, with most of its neighbours bordering India but not each other. This gives it a natural leading role in the region, but also raises fears of dominance among smaller neighbours.
- The Himalayan frontier. The mountains in the north long gave a feeling of security, which ended with the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 and the war of 1962. The unresolved boundary with China, about 3,488 km along the Line of Actual Control, makes it a constant concern, as seen in the clashes at Doklam in 2017 and Galwan in 2020.
- The northwest and Pakistan. The partition of 1947 created a hostile border in the west and the Kashmir dispute. The approaches through the northwest passes have been the route for earlier invasions, so security planners think in historical terms.
- A long coastline and the Indian Ocean. India has a coastline of about 7,500 km and island territories such as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. The Indian Ocean carries a large share of India’s trade and energy imports, and gives India an interest in the safety of sea lanes and in a navy with wide reach. This is the basis for ideas such as SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region), announced in 2015, and for the Indo-Pacific policy.
- Surrounding states. India shares land borders with Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar, and has a maritime border with Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Rivers that cross borders, such as the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and Teesta, create issues of water sharing.
- Resources and climate. The monsoon, the dependence of agriculture on rain, limited oil reserves and the need for energy imports link domestic needs with foreign policy, through energy diplomacy and climate negotiations.
Students should be careful to note that geography does not decide policy by itself, and that its effect depends on technology and on how leaders see it. The rise of missiles, air power and cyber threats has changed the meaning of the mountains and the sea.
History and tradition
History affects policy in three ways: the long tradition of statecraft and culture, the recent colonial experience, and the events of the early years of independence.
- Ancient and medieval tradition. Kautilya’s Arthashastra, written about the fourth century BCE, set out a theory of statecraft, including the mandala theory, in which the neighbour is a natural rival and the neighbour’s neighbour a natural friend. Ashoka after the Kalinga war (about 261 BCE) turned to a policy of dhamma, sending envoys to many lands. Indian civilisation also had old trade and cultural links with Southeast Asia, China, West Asia, Africa and Rome, spread by traders and monks. This has led leaders to say that India is a civilisational power with a message of peaceful coexistence. Scholars debate how far such traditions directly shaped modern policy, and how far they are used as symbols.
- The colonial experience. British rule taught the value of sovereignty and made anti-colonialism and anti-racism a key theme. India’s support for freedom movements in Indonesia, Africa and elsewhere, and its early protest against apartheid in South Africa in 1946, are examples. The colonial state also left a legacy of borders, such as the McMahon Line (1914) and the Durand Line (1893), which are the subject of later disputes. British Indian foreign policy had a strategic outlook, including control of the northwest and the sea routes, which independent India partly inherited.
- The national movement. The Indian National Congress took positions on world affairs well before independence. It condemned imperialism, sent a medical mission to China in 1938, opposed fascism, and in 1927 sent Nehru to the Brussels Congress of the League against Imperialism. This gave Indian leaders a view of world affairs, and Nehru’s Foreign Department of the Congress, set up in 1925, was a training ground.
- Partition and its aftermath. The division of the country in 1947 left a legacy of mistrust with Pakistan, wars over Kashmir and large movements of people. It continues to shape India’s security thinking and its approach to religious and communal questions.
- The early years. The shock of the 1962 war with China, followed by the wars of 1965 and 1971 with Pakistan, led to a stronger focus on defence and a more realist approach in later years.
Why these determinants matter
Geography and history give India a sense of its own place in the world, and set out the main threats and the main opportunities. They explain why India sees the subcontinent and the Indian Ocean as its sphere of interest, why it values sovereignty and independence of action, and why it has a deep interest in the end of colonialism and in the reform of the world order.
5. Domestic determinants: ideas, culture and values
Ideas give direction to policy. In India, a few ideas, drawn from the national movement and from older tradition, have framed the way leaders speak and act.
Nehru’s vision
Jawaharlal Nehru shaped the foreign policy of the first seventeen years of independence. His main beliefs were these:
- Freedom and security first. He said that the main aim of foreign policy is the preservation of India’s freedom and security.
- Friendship with all, and no entanglement in blocs. India would not join the military alliances of the Cold War, which he thought would bring tension and reduce independence.
- Anti-colonialism and anti-racism. India should support the freedom of colonies and oppose racial discrimination.
- Peaceful settlement of disputes and disarmament. War is harmful, and nuclear weapons are a grave danger.
- Internationalism and the United Nations. India should work for a world order based on cooperation.
- Development. A poor country needs peace, trade and technology from every source.
Nehru combined these in the idea of non-alignment. It was not neutrality, because India took sides on issues according to their merits, as in its role over Korea (1950 to 1953) and in the Suez crisis of 1956.
Gandhi and non-violence
Gandhi’s thought on non-violence, truth and the rejection of narrow nationalism gave a moral colour to India’s world view. His methods of struggle inspired movements elsewhere. In policy, his influence can be seen in India’s stress on peaceful means, its approach to disarmament, and its support for non-violent change. At the same time, India has used force when it considered it necessary, as in Goa (1961) and Bangladesh (1971), which shows a balance between ideal and need.
Panchsheel
The five principles of peaceful coexistence were set out in the preamble to the agreement between India and China on trade and intercourse with Tibet, signed on 29 April 1954. They are:
- Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
- Mutual non-aggression.
- Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
- Equality and mutual benefit.
- Peaceful coexistence.
Panchsheel was affirmed at the Bandung Conference in 1955 in the form of ten principles, and became part of the language of non-alignment. The Chinese attack of 1962 weakened its credibility, but India still refers to its ideas.
Non-alignment and strategic autonomy
Non-alignment grew out of the wish to stay free of blocs. India was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement, set up at Belgrade in 1961, along with Yugoslavia, Egypt, Indonesia and Ghana. After the Cold War, the idea was restated as strategic autonomy: the ability to take decisions in India’s interest without the control of another power, and to work with many partners. The term is now widely used in official and academic discussion, though not defined in one way.
The Constitution and the Directive Principles
Article 51 of the Directive Principles of State Policy says that the state shall endeavour to:
- promote international peace and security;
- maintain just and honourable relations between nations;
- foster respect for international law and treaty obligations;
- encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
These are not enforceable by courts, but they state the aims. The Constitution also gives Parliament the power to make laws on foreign affairs (Entry 10 of the Union List) and to implement treaties (Article 253), and makes the Union executive responsible for treaties and diplomacy. The Preamble’s values of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity influence the way India presents itself.
Secularism, democracy and pluralism
India is a democracy with great diversity of religion, language and culture. This shapes its policy in several ways. It presents itself as a model of democracy among developing states, which gives it a base for soft power. Its large Muslim population and its ties with the Islamic world affect its approach to West Asia. Its pluralism makes it cautious about ideas of foreign interference in internal affairs, and the concern with domestic unity affects policy on issues such as terrorism and cross-border ties.
Culture and soft power
India uses yoga, Buddhism, cinema, music, cuisine, education and the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (set up in 1950) as instruments of influence. Joseph Nye’s idea of soft power is often used. The International Day of Yoga, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2014, is one example.
Ethics and realism in debate
Students should know the debate on whether Indian policy has been idealist or realist. Critics such as Sardar Patel (in his letter to Nehru of November 1950 about China) and later writers like C. Raja Mohan and Kanti Bajpai argue that India sometimes put moral language ahead of power. Others, such as Sumit Ganguly and Srinath Raghavan, hold that India was more realist than its rhetoric. A balanced view is that ideals and interests were mixed, and that the balance moved toward power and interest over time.
6. Domestic determinants: the political system
The way a state is governed decides who makes foreign policy and how. In India, several political actors and institutions shape external choices.
Leadership
The personality, beliefs and style of leaders have a strong effect, especially in a system where the prime minister holds great power.
| Leader | Period | Distinctive marks in foreign policy |
|---|---|---|
| Jawaharlal Nehru | 1947 to 1964 | Non-alignment, Panchsheel, anti-colonialism, UN role, personal conduct of policy as his own foreign minister |
| Lal Bahadur Shastri | 1964 to 1966 | War of 1965 with Pakistan; Tashkent Declaration |
| Indira Gandhi | 1966 to 1977, 1980 to 1984 | Realist turn; Treaty with the Soviet Union (1971); Bangladesh war; nuclear test of 1974; strong regional role |
| Rajiv Gandhi | 1984 to 1989 | Interventions in Sri Lanka (IPKF) and Maldives; technology and disarmament initiatives; opening to the West |
| P. V. Narasimha Rao | 1991 to 1996 | Economic reform, Look East policy, ties with Israel (1992), engagement with the USA |
| I. K. Gujral | 1997 to 1998 | Gujral Doctrine of non-reciprocal concessions to neighbours |
| Atal Bihari Vajpayee | 1998 to 2004 | Pokhran II (1998), Lahore bus diplomacy (1999), Kargil (1999), strategic dialogue with the USA |
| Manmohan Singh | 2004 to 2014 | India-US civil nuclear agreement (2005 to 2008), strategic autonomy, economic diplomacy |
| Narendra Modi | From 2014 | Neighbourhood First, Act East, multi-alignment, personal diplomacy and diaspora outreach |
The case of Nehru shows the Rosenau point that an individual can matter greatly. Scholars have also noted how a leader’s image of the world, a concept from Robert Jervis’s work on perception and misperception, affects choices, as in Nehru’s trust in China before 1962.
Constitutional and institutional framework
The Constitution makes the executive, in practice the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers, responsible for foreign policy under Article 73 and the Union List. The key institutions are:
- The Prime Minister’s Office and the Prime Minister, who take the main decisions and conduct summit diplomacy.
- The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), headed by the External Affairs Minister and the Foreign Secretary, which prepares policy, runs missions and handles negotiations.
- The Indian Foreign Service, the cadre of diplomats.
- The National Security Council and the National Security Adviser, set up in 1998, which coordinate security and foreign policy.
- The Ministries of Defence, Commerce, Finance, Home and Petroleum, and agencies such as the Research and Analysis Wing, which provide input on security, trade and energy.
- Parliament, which discusses and questions policy, but has limited power over treaties, which the executive signs and which Parliament need not ratify, except where legislation is needed.
- The judiciary, which rarely reviews foreign policy, but has decided on issues linked to treaties and to the cession of territory, such as the Berubari Union case (1960) and the Maganbhai Ishwarbhai Patel case (1969) on the Kutch boundary.
Parliament, parties and political opinion
In the early decades, a dominant Congress and a strong prime minister left little space for debate. Opposition parties, such as the Swatantra Party, the Jana Sangh and the left parties, criticised policy, for example on China and on relations with the USSR or the USA. From 1989 to 2014, coalition governments gave a voice to regional and small parties. Even so, there has been a broad agreement on main goals. Parliament has also seen strong debates on events such as the war of 1962, the India-US nuclear deal (a confidence vote in July 2008), and the Sri Lanka question.
Public opinion and the media
In a democracy, leaders must consider public opinion, particularly on issues linked to national pride, such as Pakistan, China, Kashmir, or the treatment of Indians abroad. The growth of 24-hour television and social media has made the effect stronger and faster, and led to pressure for quick and visible action. Think tanks, universities and newspapers also contribute ideas. Scholars warn that public emotion can limit the scope of negotiation.
Federalism and the states
Foreign affairs is a Union subject, yet states have a stake. Examples are:
- Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Pressure from Tamil Nadu parties shaped India’s stance on the Tamil question, including the Katchatheevu island issue and the IPKF in 1987.
- West Bengal and Bangladesh. The state’s objection delayed the Teesta water-sharing agreement, which was ready in 2011, though not signed.
- Punjab, Kashmir and the Northeast. Border states have a direct interest in ties with Pakistan, China and Myanmar, for trade, security and refugees.
- Kerala, Gujarat and others. States with large diaspora populations or business ties push for the protection of citizens and for investment, and many states now run their own outreach.
The Constitution gives the Union exclusive power in this field, and the Supreme Court has upheld Union power, but in practice the Centre consults states, particularly on border and river matters. This shows a link between federal politics and external policy.
Coalition politics
Between 1989 and 2014, no party won a majority in the Lok Sabha, and coalition partners had views on issues such as Sri Lanka (DMK and others), Israel and the Middle East (left parties), and the nuclear deal (left parties withdrew support in 2008). This limited the room for bold moves. Since 2014, a majority government has given more freedom of action to the executive.
Interest groups, business and civil society
Industry bodies such as FICCI and CII, trade unions, farmers’ groups, think tanks and non-governmental organisations influence policy on trade talks, the World Trade Organization, climate and intellectual property. Examples are the strong farm lobby in the WTO’s agricultural talks and the role of civil society in the debates on the nuclear deal and on climate.
7. Domestic determinants: economy, defence and society
A state’s means decide what it can attempt. India’s economic condition, military strength and social features have shaped the range of choices open to it.
Economic needs and development
At independence, India was poor, with low income, food shortages and little industry. Foreign policy had to help development by securing aid, food, capital and technology. This is why India took help from many sides: wheat from the USA under PL-480, steel plants from the Soviet Union (Bhilai), Britain (Durgapur) and West Germany (Rourkela), and loans from the World Bank. The balance of payments crisis of 1991 led to a reform of the economy, and with it a new foreign policy that stressed trade, investment and ties with East Asia and the West. Since then, economic diplomacy has been a main task. Examples include the Look East policy, free trade agreements with ASEAN, Japan, South Korea, the United Arab Emirates and Australia, and the pursuit of access to technology and markets.
Energy and resource security
India imports a large share of its crude oil, natural gas and coal for its needs, which is why West Asia, the Gulf, Russia, Central Asia and Africa matter. This explains pipeline ideas such as TAPI and the Iran-Pakistan-India line, India’s investment in Iran’s Chabahar port, relations with Gulf states, and purchases of oil from Russia after 2022. Energy needs are also behind the nuclear agreement with the United States, and later the push for renewable energy through the International Solar Alliance, launched in 2015 with France.
Trade and investment
As India’s trade has grown, so has its interest in open markets, stable sea lanes and rules of trade. At the same time, concerns for farmers and small industry have made India cautious in some trade talks, as shown by its position in the WTO, and its decision in 2019 to stay out of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). The size of India’s market has become a source of bargaining power.
Military capability and defence needs
India’s strength decides how far it can protect its interests. After the defeat of 1962, India expanded its armed forces and defence production. Defence ties with the Soviet Union, later Russia, gave it equipment, and in recent years, France, the USA, Israel and others have supplied new systems, as India tries to reduce dependence on a single source. The ideas of self-reliance in defence production, under programmes such as Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat, are linked to foreign policy.
Nuclear policy
India conducted a peaceful nuclear explosion in 1974 and tested nuclear weapons at Pokhran in May 1998. India declared a policy of no first use and credible minimum deterrence, and a moratorium on testing. The nuclear question has affected relations with the USA and others, in the form of sanctions in 1998, and later with the India-US civil nuclear agreement and the waiver by the Nuclear Suppliers Group in 2008. India’s refusal to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, which it calls discriminatory, comes from its view of nuclear disarmament as a universal goal rather than a privilege of a few.
Internal security
Insurgencies in the Northeast, Kashmir, Punjab and areas of left-wing extremism, together with terrorism, link domestic security to foreign policy. India has had to work with Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh and others on border and insurgent issues, as in the operation with Bhutan in 2003 and the cooperation with Bangladesh after 2009. The Mumbai attacks of November 2008 and later attacks affected relations with Pakistan, and the need to deal with cross-border terrorism has become a main theme of Indian diplomacy at the UN and in other forums.
Population, diaspora and human resources
India has a very large population and one of the largest diasporas in the world, with more than 30 million people of Indian origin and non-resident Indians in the USA, the Gulf, the United Kingdom, Canada, Southeast Asia and Africa. They send remittances, which have been among the highest in the world, provide political links, and require protection, as shown in the evacuation of Indians from Kuwait in 1990 and from Ukraine in 2022. The government’s Pravasi Bharatiya Divas, begun in 2003, and the Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, formed in 2004 (merged with External Affairs in 2016), show the importance given to the diaspora.
Science, technology and space
India’s capacity in space, nuclear science, information technology and pharmaceuticals has become a resource for foreign policy. The Chandrayaan-3 landing near the Lunar south pole (2023), the supply of vaccines abroad under the Vaccine Maitri programme in 2021, and the global role of the Indian information technology sector are examples of tools of influence.
Social structure and identity politics
The size of Muslim and other minority populations, caste and regional identities, and the religious sentiments of parts of the public affect policy on West Asia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal. Domestic politics can also push foreign policy decisions in directions that are driven by identity, a concern that scholars raise when they study the effect of nationalism on external policy.
Summary of domestic determinants
| Determinant | Main effect on policy | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Geography | Security concerns, regional and maritime interest | Himalayan border; Indian Ocean policy |
| History | Anti-colonialism, sovereignty, civilisational outlook | Stand on apartheid and decolonisation |
| Ideas and values | Non-alignment, peaceful coexistence | Panchsheel; Article 51 |
| Leadership | Style and direction | Nehru; Indira Gandhi; Modi |
| Political system | Who decides; limits on action | Role of PMO, Parliament, coalitions |
| Federalism and public opinion | Pressure on specific issues | Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka; Teesta |
| Economy | Aid, trade, energy, technology | Reforms of 1991; energy diplomacy |
| Military and nuclear capability | Deterrence and bargaining power | Tests of 1974 and 1998 |
| Society and diaspora | Soft power, remittances, protection of citizens | Evacuations; Pravasi Bharatiya Divas |
8. International determinants
International or external determinants come from the world around the state. Kenneth Waltz argued that the structure of the international system, meaning the distribution of power among states, shapes what states do. For a state like India, which has had to deal with powerful neighbours and great powers, these forces have been very strong.
The Cold War and bipolarity (1947 to 1991)
The world was divided between the United States and the Soviet Union, which led military blocs, NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and offered alliances to new states. India’s choice of non-alignment kept it outside both blocs. At the same time, it could not stay apart from the rivalry. The US alliance with Pakistan (SEATO in 1954 and CENTO in 1955, with US arms) pushed India closer to the Soviet Union, which supported India on Kashmir at the UN Security Council by veto in 1957, 1962 and 1971, and signed the Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation in August 1971. Pakistan’s opening of ties between the USA and China in 1971 added to India’s concern. These events show how external alignments shaped India’s choices. During the Cold War, India’s economic and defence ties with the Soviet Union grew, and in the 1980s, India was concerned about the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan but did not condemn it strongly.
The end of the Cold War and the unipolar moment
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 removed India’s chief partner and the context of non-alignment. Together with the economic crisis, it led India to build ties with the USA, Israel, the European Union and the ASEAN states. The 1990s saw the start of the Look East policy (1991 to 1992), diplomatic relations with Israel (1992), and engagement with the USA, which grew through the nuclear tests of 1998 and the strategic dialogue of Vajpayee and Clinton, culminating in the India-US civil nuclear agreement.
Multipolarity and the rise of Asia
In the twenty-first century, power has become more spread out, with the rise of China, India, and others, and the relative decline of the USA’s lead. India has joined many groupings: BRICS (from 2009 to 2010, with expansion in 2024), the G20, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (member from 2017), the Quad (revived in 2017) and the International Solar Alliance. It uses the idea of a multipolar world and of reformed multilateralism as part of its diplomacy.
Great-power relationships
- United States. The relationship has moved from distance and mistrust to a global strategic partnership, with defence, technology and economic ties, and common concerns about China. It is not without friction on trade, Russia, human rights and visas.
- Russia. The old partnership continues in defence, nuclear energy and, after 2022, oil, as India holds that it needs a balance with all great powers.
- China. The most important single challenge: a border dispute, the 1962 war, support for Pakistan, a large trade deficit and rivalry in the Indian Ocean and in South Asia, along with large trade and cooperation in groups such as BRICS. Since the clashes of 2020, relations have been tense, with some steps of thaw in 2024 to 2025.
- European Union, Japan, France, the United Kingdom, Australia. Partners in trade, technology, defence and the Indo-Pacific.
The neighbourhood and the regional environment
South Asia is one of the least integrated regions. India’s relations with its neighbours are marked by questions of size, trust and sovereignty. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), formed in 1985, has been held up by India-Pakistan tension and has not met at summit level since 2014. India has therefore turned to sub-regional groups such as BIMSTEC and BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal), and to bilateral approaches. The policies of Pakistan and China in the region, the flow of refugees, and the effect of domestic politics in neighbours, such as the political changes in Sri Lanka in 2022 and Bangladesh in 2024, shape India’s choices.
The Indian Ocean and the Indo-Pacific
The Indian Ocean carries much of the world’s energy trade, and China has extended its presence there, through investments in ports in Sri Lanka, Pakistan and elsewhere, the so-called string of pearls, and its naval deployments. India has responded with naval build-up, island diplomacy and cooperation with others, and by adopting the Indo-Pacific concept, as in Prime Minister Modi’s speech at the Shangri-La Dialogue in 2018. The Quad of the USA, Japan, Australia and India, and defence agreements such as the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement with the USA (2016), reflect this.
The United Nations and international law
India is a founding member of the United Nations and has been a regular contributor of peacekeeping troops. It seeks a permanent seat on the Security Council, and has joined the G4 with Brazil, Germany and Japan for this purpose. India’s decisions are affected by UN rules, resolutions and sanctions, and by international courts. The Kashmir question was taken to the UN in 1948, which India later saw as a mistake, and UN resolutions on Kashmir remain a point of difference with Pakistan.
Globalisation and economic forces
The global economy, with trade rules of the WTO, flows of capital, supply chains and technology, affects India’s choices. Tariff and sanction policies of others, such as US trade measures, or the effect of the sanctions on Russia, require India to weigh economic interests against political ones. Climate change adds another field, in which India has taken the position of common but differentiated responsibilities and has announced a target of net zero by 2070.
Terrorism and non-traditional threats
Cross-border terrorism, with attacks such as the Parliament attack in 2001, Mumbai in 2008 and Pulwama in 2019, has been a major determinant of India’s policy on Pakistan, and has led to the surgical strikes (2016), the Balakot air strike (2019) and Operation Sindoor (May 2025), a point that students should verify in the latest official sources. Cyber threats, pandemics, climate disasters and maritime piracy are other concerns that need international cooperation.
Summary of international determinants
| Determinant | Effect on India | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Bipolar Cold War | Non-alignment; Soviet ties as a counterweight | Treaty of 1971 |
| End of the Cold War | Search for new partners; economic opening | Look East; Israel 1992 |
| Rise of China | Security pressure; balancing | Border clashes; Quad |
| Multipolarity | Many partners; strategic autonomy | BRICS, G20, SCO and the Quad together |
| Regional environment | Neighbourhood policy | SAARC, BIMSTEC, Neighbourhood First |
| Indian Ocean power politics | Naval and island diplomacy | SAGAR; Indo-Pacific vision |
| International institutions | Seeking reform and recognition | UN seat; peacekeeping |
| Globalisation | Economic diplomacy | Trade deals; WTO stand |
| Terrorism | Security cooperation, pressure on Pakistan | UN listing efforts; strikes in 2016 and 2019 |
9. Principles, phases and doctrines
Determinants explain why a policy takes a certain shape. Principles, phases and doctrines show what the policy has been. This section links the two, so that a student can say how each determinant produced a particular outcome.
Enduring principles
- Non-alignment and strategic autonomy. India avoids permanent military alliances and keeps the freedom to decide each issue on merit. After the Cold War, the idea has been restated as strategic autonomy and, in some writings, as multi-alignment.
- Panchsheel. The five principles of mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. They were set out in the 1954 agreement with China on Tibet.
- Anti-colonialism and opposition to racial discrimination. India raised the case against apartheid in South Africa at the UN from 1946 and supported liberation movements in Asia and Africa.
- Peaceful settlement of disputes. Article 51 of the Constitution asks the state to promote international peace and to encourage settlement by arbitration. India prefers talks and bilateral settlement, and has resisted third-party mediation on Kashmir.
- Support for the United Nations and multilateralism. India takes part in peacekeeping and argues for reform of the Security Council.
- Disarmament and a nuclear policy of restraint. India pressed for nuclear disarmament, refused to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty as discriminatory, and after 1998 adopted a policy of credible minimum deterrence and no first use.
- South-South cooperation and the voice of the developing world. India speaks for the Global South on trade, climate and development finance.
Phases of India’s foreign policy
1947 to 1962: idealism and non-alignment. Under Nehru, India sought a role in world affairs through the Asian Relations Conference (1947), the Bandung Conference (1955) and the Non-Aligned Movement (founded at Belgrade in 1961). The phase ended with the war with China in 1962, which exposed the gap between ideals and military strength.
1962 to 1971: realism and defence build-up. India raised its defence spending, fought the war of 1965 with Pakistan, and moved closer to the Soviet Union. The Green Revolution began to reduce dependence on food aid.
1971 to 1991: regional power and consolidation. The Bangladesh war of 1971, the Treaty with the Soviet Union, the nuclear test of 1974 and the peacekeeping operation in Sri Lanka (1987 to 1990) show a state which acted as the leading power in South Asia, opposing outside intervention in the region.
1991 to 1998: economic reform and new partners. Liberalisation, the Look East policy, relations with Israel and the Gujral Doctrine belong to these years.
1998 to 2014: nuclear state and strategic partnerships. After the tests at Pokhran, India built strategic partnerships with the USA, Russia, France, Japan and others, and the civil nuclear agreement with the USA ended its isolation in nuclear trade.
2014 to the present: multi-alignment and a wider global role. The policy is marked by Neighbourhood First, Act East, the Indo-Pacific approach, the Quad, the presidency of the G20 in 2023, and the claim to speak for the Global South.
Doctrines and named policies
| Doctrine or policy | Period | Main idea |
|---|---|---|
| Non-alignment | 1947 onwards | Independent judgement; no military bloc |
| Panchsheel | 1954 | Five principles of peaceful coexistence |
| Indira Doctrine (a term used by scholars) | 1970s and 1980s | India as the main power in South Asia, with no outside intervention in the region |
| Gujral Doctrine | 1996 to 1997 | Non-reciprocal help to smaller neighbours; no interference in internal affairs; settling disputes bilaterally |
| Look East | From 1991 to 1992 | Ties with Southeast Asia and East Asia |
| Act East | From 2014 | A more active and strategic version of Look East |
| Credible minimum deterrence and no first use | 1999 draft; 2003 official doctrine | Nuclear weapons only for deterrence; no first use against a nuclear state; assured retaliation if attacked |
| Neighbourhood First | From 2014 | Priority to connectivity, trade and people-to-people ties in South Asia |
| SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) | 2015 | Cooperation in the Indian Ocean |
How determinants link to the doctrines
Non-alignment came from the domestic need for development and freedom of choice, and from the external reality of the Cold War. The Indira Doctrine reflected geography and the fear of outside powers in the neighbourhood. The Gujral Doctrine reflected the view of a coalition government that India’s security depends on goodwill in the region. Look East and Act East show the effect of economics, the end of the Cold War and the rise of Asia. This pairing of cause and result is the kind of analysis that earns marks in examinations.
10. Determinants at work: selected cases
The cases below show how several determinants act together in a single relationship. A student should use them as examples in answers.
China
Geography gives India a long and disputed boundary, with the Line of Actual Control of about 3,488 km. History adds the 1962 war. The two states signed the Panchsheel agreement in 1954, and later signed agreements for peace and tranquillity along the border (1993 and 1996), while the visit of Rajiv Gandhi in 1988 began a thaw. The economy now links them closely, since China is one of India’s largest trading partners, but India has a large trade deficit. The clash at Doklam (2017) and the violent clash in the Galwan Valley (June 2020) hardened public opinion and policy. International factors are the Sino-Pakistani partnership, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (with the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor passing through territory India claims) and rivalry in the Indian Ocean. India therefore balances: it competes by partnering with the Quad and building its own capacity, and it cooperates in BRICS and the SCO.
Pakistan
The partition of 1947, the conflict over Kashmir and differing ideas of the state are the first determinants. India and Pakistan have fought wars in 1947 to 1948, 1965 and 1971, with a limited conflict at Kargil in 1999. Agreements include the Indus Waters Treaty (1960, with the World Bank), the Tashkent Declaration (1966) and the Simla Agreement (1972). Domestic politics in both states, the role of the army in Pakistan and cross-border terrorism shape the relationship, as do external powers, which at various times backed Pakistan with arms. In recent years, India has held that talks and terror cannot go together, and has acted through military and diplomatic measures. Students should check the latest status of the Indus Waters Treaty and of recent events in official sources.
The United States
During the Cold War, ties were cool, because of US arms for Pakistan and India’s non-alignment, although the USA provided food aid under PL-480 in the 1950s and 1960s. Sanctions after the 1998 tests were followed by a rapid change: the Joint Statement of July 2005, the civil nuclear agreement and the NSG waiver of 2008, the designation as a Major Defence Partner (2016) and the Quad. Domestic factors, such as the Indian-American community, the technology sector and the need for investment, favour closer ties. Differences remain over trade and tariffs, Russia, and India’s insistence on autonomy.
Russia and the Soviet Union
The partnership began in the 1950s with steel plants and a Soviet position of support on Kashmir. The 1971 Treaty provided a security assurance in the Bangladesh crisis. The relationship has continued since 1991 through a strategic partnership signed in 2000, in defence supplies (including the S-400 system contracted in 2018), nuclear energy and oil. After 2022, India avoided condemning Russia at the UN and bought Russian oil, while calling for talks, which shows its priority for national interest and strategic autonomy.
The smaller neighbours
- Nepal. An open border and the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950, along with the issues of the boundary in Kalapani and the politics of Nepal.
- Bhutan. A close partner, with the treaty of 1949 revised in 2007 so that India no longer guides Bhutan’s foreign policy, and shared hydropower projects.
- Bangladesh. India helped in the liberation in 1971, signed the Ganga water treaty (1996) and the Land Boundary Agreement (2015), and faces questions on the Teesta waters, migration and political change in Dhaka.
- Sri Lanka. The Indo-Sri Lanka Accord of 1987 and the peacekeeping force, then support for reconstruction, with concern about Chinese presence and the Tamil question.
- Maldives. India sent troops in 1988 (Operation Cactus) at the request of the government, and later the relationship has varied with the politics of the islands.
- Afghanistan and Myanmar. Development aid and connectivity, with security concerns.
Recent trends
In the last decade, India has emphasised the diaspora, energy security, evacuation operations, humanitarian help and the Vaccine Maitri programme, along with leadership in the G20 in 2023, during which the African Union was admitted as a permanent member. It has stressed its role as a voice of the Global South, strategic autonomy, and the term Vishwa Bandhu (friend of the world).
Summary table of the cases
| Case | Main determinants | Policy outcome |
|---|---|---|
| China | Geography, history of 1962, trade, power rivalry | Balancing; talks plus deterrence; Quad |
| Pakistan | Partition, Kashmir, terrorism, domestic politics | Mix of conflict, deterrence and limited talks |
| USA | Cold War alignments; economy; technology; diaspora | From distance to a strategic partnership |
| Russia | Defence needs; history; energy | Continued partnership with autonomy |
| Smaller neighbours | Size, trade, shared rivers, politics | Neighbourhood First; aid and connectivity |
| Global South | Identity, development needs | Leadership in the G20; South-South cooperation |
11. Importance and limitations of the determinants approach
Studying foreign policy through its determinants is a basic method in the subject. It helps students to explain a decision rather than just describe it. It also has limits, which examiners often ask about in questions that begin with the word “critically”.
Importance
It explains why policy takes a particular form. A decision such as non-alignment or the 1998 nuclear tests is not a matter of one leader’s mood. The approach shows the geography, the history, the economic needs and the external pressures behind it, so the explanation is fuller and more reliable.
It connects domestic and international politics. The approach does not treat the state as a closed box. It shows how the Constitution, public opinion, coalitions and the economy meet the Cold War, the rise of China and globalisation, and why a policy is a result of both.
It helps to separate continuity from change. Geography and the commitment to autonomy change slowly, while leaders, parties and the international order change faster. By sorting the factors, a student can see why India’s policy shows both continuity and change.
It supports comparison between states. The same list of factors can be applied to China, Pakistan, the USA or Japan. This gives a common method for comparative study and for questions on small and large states.
It helps in understanding the role of leaders. The approach does not deny the role of individuals such as Nehru, Indira Gandhi or Vajpayee, but places them within constraints. It asks how much freedom they had and how they used it.
It brings in the role of institutions. The Ministry of External Affairs, the Prime Minister’s Office, the National Security Council, Parliament and the courts become part of the study, so that foreign policy is seen as a process of decision-making.
It makes room for economic and technological factors. Energy, trade, remittances and technology are now central to diplomacy. The approach gives them a place beside security and ideology.
It helps in predicting trends and in policy analysis. Although prediction is limited, knowing the determinants helps to judge which policies are likely to last, which are fragile, and what risks lie ahead.
It links theory with practice. Realism, liberalism and constructivism each stress different determinants. Using the approach, a student can test theories against cases.
It prepares the student for the examination and for public service. The approach gives a structure for answers on India’s relations with any country or region. It also trains the habit of looking at all sides of a problem, which is useful in the civil services.
Limitations
The list of factors is long and has no clear order. Every event has many causes. The approach seldom says which determinant matters most in a particular case, so the analysis can become a simple list.
Factors overlap and cannot be separated cleanly. Geography influences the economy, which influences the military, which influences the international position. Putting these into separate boxes can hide how they interact.
It is hard to measure the weight of each factor. Public opinion, culture or national identity cannot be measured easily, so claims about their effect are often impressions.
The distinction between domestic and international is blurred. In a globalised world, terrorism, trade, climate and migration cross borders. A clean line between internal and external sources is increasingly artificial.
It may underrate the role of individuals and chance. A sudden event, such as an assassination, an accident or a leader’s decision, can change the course of policy in ways that structural factors do not explain.
It can be too static. A list of determinants describes conditions at one point of time. It is less able to explain how changes occur, how learning takes place and how ideas spread.
Official secrecy limits the evidence. Much of the decision-making happens behind closed doors, and archives are opened late. Scholars often work with partial information.
It risks a state-centred view. The approach focuses on the state and its government. It gives less attention to the role of non-state actors, such as firms, civil society, media platforms and multinational companies.
It may hide the difference between stated and real aims. Speeches speak of principle, while actual choices may follow interests. Without careful reading, the analysis may repeat the official account.
It may suit powerful states better than weak ones. For smaller states, the constraints from outside may be so strong that internal factors seem to matter little, while for others the reverse holds. A single framework may not fit all.
It may not tell us what the policy should be. The approach explains and describes. It does not say whether a policy is right, wise or moral, which needs a separate argument.
Illustrations
| Determinant | Illustration | What it shows |
|---|---|---|
| Geography | The Himalaya, the long coastline and the shared borders with several states | Security concerns on land and sea |
| History | Colonial rule and the freedom movement | Anti-colonialism and the wish for autonomy |
| Ideas and values | Panchsheel; Article 51 | Peace, equality and peaceful coexistence |
| Leadership | Nehru’s broadcast of 7 September 1946 | The role of a founding leader in shaping the choice |
| Institutions | The Maganbhai Patel case (1969) | The role of courts and Parliament in treaties on territory |
| Economy | Liberalisation from 1991 | Shift from self-reliance to global engagement |
| Domestic politics | Coalition governments | Compromise on matters such as the Teesta water treaty |
| Cold War | Treaty with the Soviet Union (1971) | External pressure shaping alliances |
| Rise of China | Quad and Indo-Pacific policy | Balancing strategy |
| Terrorism | Mumbai attack (2008) | Security as a leading determinant of Pakistan policy |
12. Use in examinations
What examiners expect
| Examination | Typical expectation | How to answer |
|---|---|---|
| UG semester papers | Definition, list and explanation of determinants | Short definition, 5 to 6 factors, one example each |
| PG (MA Political Science) | Theory plus India-specific analysis | Cite scholars; link theory to cases |
| OPSC (OCS and OAS Mains) | Balanced analysis of factors, with current examples | Introduction, factors, example, conclusion |
| UPSC Mains (GS Paper 2) | Contemporary issues of India’s relations | Facts, dates, data and a view of the national interest |
| UGC NET Paper 2 | Identification of terms, authors and doctrines | Know names, books and doctrines |
Practice questions
- What is meant by the determinants of foreign policy? Discuss the domestic determinants of India’s foreign policy.
- Examine the role of geography and history in shaping India’s foreign policy.
- “The Cold War shaped India’s non-alignment.” Discuss the effect of international factors on India’s foreign policy.
- How far do domestic politics, including coalitions and federalism, influence India’s foreign policy? Give examples.
- Explain the Gujral Doctrine and the Indira Doctrine. Do they remain relevant?
- Critically assess the shift from non-alignment to multi-alignment in India’s foreign policy.
- Examine the effects of the rise of China on India’s foreign policy choices.
Structured outline for a long answer
Question: Discuss the domestic and international determinants of India’s foreign policy.
Introduction
- Define foreign policy and the idea of determinants.
- State that the policy is shaped by both internal and external factors.
Body
- Domestic determinants: geography, history, ideas and values, leadership, institutions, the economy, domestic politics and public opinion, with one example each.
- International determinants: Cold War and after, great-power relations, neighbourhood, international organisations, globalisation, terrorism.
- Show how the two sets interact, with the example of China or the USA.
- Continuity and change, from non-alignment to multi-alignment.
Conclusion
- The determinants work together, and their weight changes over time.
- Policy aims at national interest and strategic autonomy.
Sample answer (about 200 words)
Introduction. Foreign policy is the set of aims and actions by which a state deals with other states. Its determinants are the factors which shape it. In India’s case these come from within the country and from the world outside.
Body. Among domestic determinants, geography gives India long land and sea borders and makes security a constant concern. The colonial past and the freedom movement produced a strong commitment to anti-colonialism and autonomy. Ideas such as Panchsheel and Article 51 of the Constitution favour peace. Leaders such as Nehru gave the policy its early shape, and institutions such as Parliament, the Ministry of External Affairs and the Prime Minister’s Office make and review decisions. The economy, including energy needs and trade, has become more important since 1991, and coalition politics and public opinion affect decisions on neighbours.
Among international determinants, the Cold War led India to non-alignment and later to close ties with the Soviet Union. After 1991 India built new partnerships, including with the USA. The rise of China, terrorism, the Indo-Pacific and globalisation now shape the agenda.
Conclusion. Domestic and international determinants work together, and neither set can explain India’s policy alone. The result has been a search for national interest through strategic autonomy.
Quick check
- Name three domestic and three international determinants.
- Which treaty of 1971 shows the Cold War effect?
- Which doctrine promised non-reciprocal help to smaller neighbours?
- Which article of the Constitution deals with international peace?
- What is the difference between non-alignment and multi-alignment?
Common mistakes
- Giving a list of factors with no example or explanation.
- Treating non-alignment as neutrality or isolation.
- Ignoring the interaction between domestic and international factors.
- Writing about only the Nehru period and missing recent developments.
- Giving dates and names from memory without checking them.
- Writing a conclusion which only repeats the introduction.
13. Critical analysis
Structure and agency
The first debate is about how much of India’s policy is explained by structure (geography, the international order, the economy) and how much by agency (the choices of leaders and parties). Realist writers stress structure: a weak, newly independent state in a bipolar world had few choices, and non-alignment was a rational response. Others stress agency: Nehru’s ideas, the personality of Indira Gandhi and the nuclear decisions of 1974 and 1998 show that leaders made real choices.
Idealism or realism?
A second debate asks whether the early policy was idealist. Critics, such as those who studied the 1962 war, said that Nehru placed too much faith in moral principles. Defenders say that non-alignment was a hard-headed way of keeping the country out of blocs while it built its strength, and that the principles served the national interest. Later writers argue that the policy has always mixed both elements.
Continuity and change
Some scholars, such as those who speak of a strategic culture, stress continuity: autonomy, a cautious use of force and a wish for a larger role. Others, such as C. Raja Mohan, point to breaks, like the economic reforms of 1991, the nuclear tests of 1998 and the partnership with the USA after 2005. The better answer is that the aims have stayed, while the means and partners have changed.
Is multi-alignment a new doctrine?
Supporters say that it is a natural form of strategic autonomy in a multipolar world, since India can work with the Quad, BRICS and the SCO at the same time. Critics say that it lacks a clear core, and that it may mean a policy of keeping all options open without clear priorities, especially in a rivalry with China.
Domestic politics and foreign policy
There is a view that the area of foreign policy has been kept apart from party politics, with a broad consensus. Recent events show that this consensus has limits, as parties differ on China, the USA and neighbours, and as the media and public mood influence the style of policy. At the same time, the role of Parliament remains weaker than in some other democracies, since treaties are made by the executive.
Capacity and ambition
India’s ambitions, such as a permanent seat in the Security Council and the status of a leading power, are bigger than its present capacity in some areas: the diplomatic service is small compared with the size of the country, defence production depends on imports, and the trade deficit with China is large. Careful writers ask whether the determinants limit the ambitions or whether ambitions can reshape the determinants.
Theory
Realism explains the security concerns and balancing. Liberalism helps with trade, institutions and the role of democracy. Constructivism draws attention to identity and ideas, such as Panchsheel and the image of a civilisational state. No single theory covers all the cases, so an eclectic approach is common.
Model concluding paragraph
India’s foreign policy has been shaped by a continuous exchange between domestic and international determinants. Geography and history gave it a concern for security and autonomy, ideas and leadership gave it a style, and the economy has made it more open to the world. At the same time, the Cold War, the rise of China and globalisation have set the limits within which choices were made. The aims of the policy have remained steady, namely security, development and a larger voice, while the means have moved from non-alignment to multi-alignment. The determinants approach cannot tell which factor matters most in each case, but it remains the most useful method for explaining why India acts as it does.
14. UGC NET: authors and books
The following works are often named in syllabi and reading lists. Students should check the edition and the exact title before citing them in an answer.
| Author | Work | Relevance |
|---|---|---|
| Jawaharlal Nehru | The Discovery of India (1946); India’s Foreign Policy: Selected Speeches | Primary source for the ideas behind early policy |
| K. M. Panikkar | India and the Indian Ocean (1945) | Importance of sea power and geography |
| Bimal Prasad | The Origins of Indian Foreign Policy (1960) | Roots in the Congress and the freedom movement |
| J. Bandyopadhyaya | The Making of India’s Foreign Policy (1970) | Process and determinants of policy |
| A. Appadorai | The Domestic Roots of India’s Foreign Policy (1981) | Domestic determinants |
| V. P. Dutt | India’s Foreign Policy since Independence | Survey of phases and relations |
| J. N. Dixit | India’s Foreign Policy 1947-2003; Indian Foreign Policy and Its Neighbours | Insider account; neighbourhood |
| C. Raja Mohan | Crossing the Rubicon (2003); Modi’s World (2015) | Shift to power politics and partnerships |
| Sumit Ganguly (ed.) | India’s Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect (2010) | Essays on continuity and change |
| Shivshankar Menon | Choices: Inside the Making of India’s Foreign Policy (2016) | Practitioner’s view of decisions |
| S. Jaishankar | The India Way (2020) | Multi-alignment and strategic autonomy |
| Kanti Bajpai and Harsh V. Pant (eds.) | India’s Foreign Policy: A Reader (2013) | Selected readings |
Revision tip
Make a one-page chart with three columns: determinant, example, scholar. For each of the eight to ten determinants, write one fact and one name. Then revise the doctrines (Panchsheel, Indira, Gujral) with their dates. Questions in UGC NET are often a matter of matching, so a chart of names, works and ideas is more useful than long notes.
15. Takeaways, sources and further reading
Key takeaways
- Foreign policy is shaped by domestic and international determinants which act together.
- Domestic determinants include geography, history, ideas and values, leadership, institutions, the economy, domestic politics and public opinion.
- International determinants include the Cold War and its end, great-power relations, the neighbourhood, international organisations, globalisation and terrorism.
- India’s enduring principles are strategic autonomy, peaceful settlement, anti-colonialism and support for the UN.
- The policy has moved from idealism and non-alignment to multi-alignment, but its aims have remained steady.
- The approach explains well, but it cannot rank factors or predict events with certainty.
Official sources
- Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India
- Constitution of India, Legislative Department
- Press Information Bureau
- Parliament of India (Sansad)
- Ministry of Defence
- Indian Council of World Affairs
- United Nations
Twenty books for further reading
- Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India.
- Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s Foreign Policy: Selected Speeches, September 1946 to April 1961.
- K. M. Panikkar, India and the Indian Ocean.
- Bimal Prasad, The Origins of Indian Foreign Policy.
- J. Bandyopadhyaya, The Making of India’s Foreign Policy.
- V. P. Dutt, India’s Foreign Policy since Independence.
- A. Appadorai, The Domestic Roots of India’s Foreign Policy.
- A. Appadorai and M. S. Rajan, India’s Foreign Policy and Relations.
- J. N. Dixit, India’s Foreign Policy 1947-2003.
- J. N. Dixit, Indian Foreign Policy and Its Neighbours.
- C. Raja Mohan, Crossing the Rubicon.
- C. Raja Mohan, Modi’s World.
- Sumit Ganguly (ed.), India’s Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect.
- Kanti Bajpai and Harsh V. Pant (eds.), India’s Foreign Policy: A Reader.
- David M. Malone, Does the Elephant Dance? Contemporary Indian Foreign Policy.
- Rajiv Sikri, Challenge and Strategy: Rethinking India’s Foreign Policy.
- Shivshankar Menon, Choices: Inside the Making of India’s Foreign Policy.
- S. Jaishankar, The India Way.
- Muchkund Dubey, India’s Foreign Policy: Coping with the Changing World.
- Stephen P. Cohen, India: Emerging Power.
Editorial note
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Frequently asked questions
What are the determinants of foreign policy? They are the internal and external factors which influence the aims, choices and actions of a state in its dealings with other states.
Which are the main domestic determinants of India’s foreign policy? Geography, history, ideas and values, leadership, constitutional and institutional framework, the economy, domestic politics and public opinion.
Which are the main international determinants? The Cold War and its end, relations with great powers, the regional environment, the UN and other institutions, globalisation, and security threats such as terrorism.
Is non-alignment still relevant? The term is used less often today. Its core idea, independent judgement in the national interest, continues as strategic autonomy or multi-alignment.
What is the Gujral Doctrine? A set of principles from 1996 to 1997 under which India would offer help to smaller neighbours without asking for the same in return, and would not interfere in their internal affairs.
Which article of the Constitution deals with international peace? Article 51, a Directive Principle of State Policy.
