The term “democracy” and the classical conception of democratic rule are firmly rooted in Ancient Greece, where the core element is self-rule. The Greek historian Herodotus used the term “democracy” in the fifth century BCE to mean “rule by the people”. Etymologically, it is derived from a combination of two Greek words: ‘demos’, meaning ‘the people’, and ‘kratien’, meaning ‘to rule’.
In contrast, the modern understanding of democracy is largely dominated by the electoral democracy that has emerged in the industrialized West, generally referred to as liberal democracy. Ultimately, democracy is not just a form of government; it is a way of associated living where people respect and tolerate diversity while sharing power in the decision-making process.
Components of Democratic Culture
The core components of a democratic culture include:
- Respect for human dignity.
- Respecting individuality.
- A culture of rights, toleration, and rationalism.
Furthermore, the principle of democracy requires that different minorities—whether racial, religious, linguistic, or cultural—enjoy full freedom to preserve their cultural traits and feel completely safe.
Important Definitions of Democracy
Various scholars and leaders have defined democracy throughout history:
- Lowell: “Democracy is only an experiment in government.”
- Seeley: “Democracy as a government in which everyone has a share.”
- Abraham Lincoln: “Democracy is a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.”
- Henry Emerson Fosdick: “Democracy is based upon the conviction that there are extraordinary possibilities in ordinary people.”
- Dicey: “Democracy is a form of government under which majority opinion determines legislation.”
- James Bryce: “Democracy is a rule of the people expressing their sovereign will through votes.”
- MacIver: “Democracy is a form of state that is merely a mode of appointing, controlling, and dismissing a government.”
- Gettel: “Democracy is that form of government in which the masses of the population possesses the right to share in the exercise of sovereign power.”
Procedural vs. Substantive Democracy
Democracy can be broadly categorized into two frameworks based on its implementation and depth:
| Procedural Democracy | Substantive Democracy |
| Emphasizes only the procedures and institutions of democracy. | Stands for the experience of democratic power by the citizen in their day-to-day life. |
| Limited primarily to the procedure of election. | Not just limited to political equality, but assumes a role in achieving Social and Economic Democracy. |
| True empowerment of the masses is rare. | Focuses on active empowerment and broad equality. |
| Commonly found in the Western Liberal-Democratic Political System. | Serves as a broader goal beyond mere institutional framework. |
Six Models of Democracy by David Held
In his 1987 book ‘Models of Democracy’, David Held outlined six distinct models of democracy:
- Classical Democracy: Characterized by direct democracy, with ancient Athens serving as its epicentre.
- Protective Democracy: Based on the idea that democracy is required for the protection of rights and liberty. Key exponents include John Locke and Bentham.
- Developmental Democracy: Argues that democracy is necessary for the holistic development of a person or personality. A primary exponent of this view is J. S. Mill.
- Participatory Democracy: Focuses on increasing the participation of people in governance, often leading to democratic decentralization. Key exponents include Rousseau, Macpherson, and Carole Pateman.
- Cosmopolitan Democracy: This model expands the concept by thinking of democracy at the global level.
- Marxist Model of Democracy: Also known as proletarian democracy or socialist democracy, this model denotes a state characterized by the dominion of the proletariat (Dictatorship of the Proletariat). This system is uniquely described as a “pyramidal structure of direct democracy”.
Types of Democracy
1. Direct Democracy
Direct democracy is a system of government in which all public decisions are made at regular meetings by the whole body of citizens. It is also commonly referred to as Participatory Democracy. Historically, Aristotle defined direct democracy as “all commanding each and each, in turn, commanding all”. In a modern sense, Rousseau propounded the idea of direct democracy as a popular sovereign, stating that “only with the participation of people that general will can be filtered”. In this system, the State and society essentially become one. Major supporters of this model include Rousseau, Benjamin Barber, Nancy Fraser, and M. K. Gandhi.
Principles of Direct Democracy:
- People are sovereign.
- Sovereignty is inalienable and cannot be represented.
- People must express their general will and make decisions directly through referendums.
- Decisions will be made by majority vote.
Examples:
- In ancient times, direct democracy was achieved in Athens and the Indian Republics.
- Its modern manifestation can be seen in the referendum system followed in Switzerland for the Process of Constitutional Amendments.
- The ‘Gram Sabha’, as envisaged in the Seventy-Third Constitutional Amendment (Panchayati Raj System), serves as an instance of direct democracy in rural India.
2. Indirect Democracy
While the original form of democracy was ‘Direct Democracy’, the growth of population and the rise of modern complex societies made representative democracy inevitable. Indirect democracy, or representative democracy, is a system where the government is conducted by the representatives of the people who are elected at regular intervals. In contemporary times, the term ‘democracy’ is widely used as a synonym for ‘representative democracy’ unless indicated otherwise. J. S. Mill considered representative democracy as one of the best practicable forms of government; however, he was deeply concerned about it becoming a “tyranny of the majority” and subsequently proposed various reforms. One of the major ongoing challenges of this system is ensuring true representativeness, leading scholars to suggest various models of representation and improvements in electoral systems.
3. Deliberative Democracy
Deliberative democracy is an attempt to reconcile two different models of democratic thought: ‘Democracy as a popular rule’ and ‘Democracy as the bulwark of personal freedom’.
Core Characteristics:
- Democratic decision-making should include a component of popular rule.
- At the same time, it pays due regard to the personal freedom of every individual.
- It should be used to promote public debate on subjects that are best understood through open, deliberative processes. As Pericles stated, “Discussion is not a stumbling block, but an indispensable preliminary of any wise action”.
- People in a deliberative democracy try to persuade each other using a common form of reasoned reasoning, that is, by appealing to the dominant value system.
- Deliberative democracy rejects the political model in which each individual fights for his or her own ‘self-interest’.
- Instead, it proposes a political model in which each individual attempts to persuade others to find a decent solution to public challenges and the best way to secure the ‘public good’.
- Major exponents of deliberative democracy include Pericles, Joshua Cohen, Habermas, David Held, Michael Walzer, Hannah Arendt, Bernard Manin, and J. S. Fishkin.
Deliberative Democracy’s Important Concepts:
| Thinker | Key Concept |
| Amartya Sen | Public Reasoning |
| John Rawls | Overlapping Consensus |
| Habermas | Public Sphere, Communicative Action, and Ideal Speech Situation |
Important Authors and Books in Democratic Theory
- Carole Pateman — Participation and Democratic Theory
- Samuel P. Huntington — Third Wave: Democratisation in the Twentieth Century
- Jean Jack Rousseau — The Social Contract
- James Bryce — Modern Democracies
- C. B. Macpherson — The real world of democracy, The life and times of liberal democracy, and Democratic Theory–Essay in Retrieval
- J. S. Mill — Consideration on Representative Government
- Alexis de Tocqueville — Democracy in America
- Sartori — Democratic Theory
- David Held — Models of Democracy, and Democracy and The Global Order
- Robert Dahl — A Preface to Democratic Theory, Democracy and Its Critics, and On Democracy
- John Plamenatz — Democracy and Illusion
- Joshua Cohen — On Democracy: Towards a Transformation of American Society
| Author | Book(s) |
| Carole Pateman | Participation and Democratic Theory |
| Samuel P. Huntington | Third Wave: Democratisation in the Twentieth Century |
| Jean Jack Rousseau | The Social Contract |
| James Bryce | Modern Democracies |
| C. B. Macpherson | The real world of democracy The life and times of liberal democracy Democratic Theory–Essay in Retrieval |
| J. S. Mill | Consideration on Representative Government |
| Alexis de Tocqueville | Democracy in America |
| Sartori | Democratic Theory |
| David Held | Models of Democracy Democracy and The Global Order |
| Robert Dahl | A Preface to Democratic Theory Democracy and Its Critics On Democracy |
| John Plamenatz | Democracy and Illusion |
| Joshua Cohen | On Democracy: Towards a Transformation of American Society |